Manuscript Study: Office of the Dead
By
Cynthia Varady
San Jose State University
Prof. Elizabth Wrenn-Estes
LIBR 280-03
March 22, 2010
Littera gothica textualis rotunda formata
Medieval Italy from 1250 – 1350
References and Works Consulted
Introduction
Figure 1
This paper will attempt to analyze and decipher clues, such as script characteristics, writing support, and temperament of ink over time, of a small prayer book (measuring no more than 10 cm. x 13 cm.) kept within the Richard Harrison Collection of Calligraphy and Lettering (Figure 1) within the San Francisco Public Library (SFPL).
Not much is known about this manuscript, however from what little was gleaned from its donor, the manuscript contains the Office of the Dead (S. Taylor, personal communication February 17, 2010). Comprised of first Vespers, Mass, Matins, and Lauds, the Office of the Dead is a cycle of prayer in the Divine Office of the Roman Catholic Church which was read to bring peace to the souls of the deceased (“Office of the Dead,” 2009, para. 1). Segments of this Divine Office were read on All Souls’ Day in an attempt to ease the amount of time loved ones had been sentenced to Purgatory (“Office of the Dead,” para. 2).
According to Brown, (1990) deciphering the explicit hierarchy between the four grades of Gothic script can only be achieved through a detailed analysis of the script being studied (p. 80). Luckily, of the four grades of Textualis, (prescissa; quadrata; semi-quadrata; rotunda) the manuscript shows prominent signs of rotunda, which is an Italian liturgical book hand (Brown, 1991 p. 80; “Remains of a Medieval Italian Antiphonal,” 2003, para. 1), narrowing the region of the manuscript’s birth to Italy. These components lend a region and a timeline to this small pray book.
The categories of Gothic scripts find their origin within the Carolingian Empire beginning in ninth century (Figure 2). The empire fathered by Charlemagne engulfed most of Northern Europe and Italy. During his reign, Charlemagne sought to cultivate societal cohesion and governmental constancy (Brown 1994, p. 34). One way in which he accomplished this was through the standardization of written scripts. Known as Caroline minuscule, this script presented the Empire with a regular writing style which was more legible than its predecessors. Simplifying written communication, it quickly spread throughout the Empire (Brown 1994, p. 34; “Carolingian minuscule,” 2010, para. 1).
Figure 2
With the reemergence of universities and an ever growing literate population of the twelfth century, new innovations in manuscript production needed to be developed in order to supply the ever growing demand for books. The first task was to develop a book hand that could be written more quickly and at the same time, due to the costly nature of vellum and parchment, take up less of the page by being more compact than Caroline miniscule (“Black Letter,” 2010, para. 3; Tillotson, 2005, “Rotunda,” para. 2). The resultant was an intricate hierarchy of Gothic scripts.
The term Gothic was first used by the Italian Humanists in the fifteenth century to describe what they thought to be a hedonistic and barbaric script. The Gothic style book hand, also know as Black Letter, dates from the thirteenth century to the end of manuscript book production in late fifteenthand sixteenth centuries (Brown, 1990, p. 80; Tillotson, 2005, “Gothic Variations,” para. 2). The variations of Textualis were graded on their presentation of broad vertical strokes and minims (hooked vertical strokes of lower case letters) ending in pronounced feet; those scripts with less pronounced minims along with undeveloped feet were considered to be of a lower grade (Brown, 1990, p. 80; Tillotson, 2005, “Gothic Variations 2,” para. 4).
Littera gothica textualis rotunda formata.
During the latter part of the twelfth century, northern Italy developed a liturgical book hand with similar angularity to that of France with Textualis quadrata, however retaining a more rounded letter formation from that of Caroline miniscule (“Remains of a Medieval Italian Antiphonal,” 2003, para. 1). While other forms of Gothic script lost much of the characteristics attributed to Caroline miniscule, becoming more angular and vertical, rotunda remained closer to the original than other areas of Europe (Ullman, 1974, p.12). Regardless of its more traditional characteristics, rotunda is considered to be a less formal grade in the hierarchy of Gothic scripts. Instead of properly donned feet, rotunda ends letters with a simple upward stroke (Brown, 1991, p. 88; “Tillotson, 2005, “Rotunda,” para. 2).
Being that the SFPL manuscript is a prayer book and written in a liturgical script, it is safe to assume that it is a monastic production and was most likely written by a member of the clergy. As it were, the manuscript contains no colophon, which is common of religious works of the Middle Ages; most manuscripts of a religious nature were produced anonymously. However it is evident from the consistency of the script that the same hand penned the whole of the manuscript. This fact makes it easier to identify the script used; different scribes had varying techniques and styles to their writing, making one book hand look more like another. This can add a new level of difficulty in identifying a particular style of script.
Figure 4
Figure 3
Samples taken from the manuscript illustrate some of the distinctive qualities for which rotunda is known. Abbreviations like the lowercase Q with a line beneath it signifying the word qui were common, (e.g., Q, line 2, in Figure 3, Q, line 2, word 2 in Figure 4) (Tillotson, 2005, “Gothic Variations,” para. 4). Also appearing in Figures 3 and 4 are the two types of lowercase D, R and S used in rotunda as in the words “sacer” dotcs”, and “sacerdo” (e.g. S, line 3, word 2 in Figures 3 and 4; D, line 4, word 1 Figures 3 and 4; D, line 5, word 3 in Figure 4; and R, line 5, word 3 in Figure 4). Roughly translated, these examples from the Collects of the Dead a section of prayer from the Collects of the Dead, say: “Oh God, who didst cause thy servants, for whom we pray, to enjoy the dignity of the priesthood. . .” (“Office of the Dead,” “Collects of the Dead,” para. 6). This would have been read if the deceased’s body was not present.
In the case of the lowercase forms of D, one has the straight construction, while the other has a profoundly backward sloping ascender. The appearance of the lowercase R also has one straight form and a second modified form that has the look of the numeral 2. This latter form is used when the R follows a rounded letter (“Gothic Rotunda,” 2009, para. 4). Similar are the forms of the lowercase S. Here, again, there is the “regular” form and a longer form which resembles a lowercase F without out the perpendicular line crossing the stem (“Remains of a Medieval Italian Antiphonal,” 2003, para. 6).
Other characteristics common to rotunda include identical forms of lowercase U and V which are formed by two rounded minims connected by the first’s upward flourish. Base- and head-lines of lowercase letters are equal in height with the exceptions of the ascenders of the lowercase forms B, F, H, L (e.g. B, line 7, word 2; F, line 9, word 2; L, line 5, word 2 in Figure 5). Letters descending below the base line typically consist of lowercase G, P, Q, Y and X (e.g. G, line 1, word 2; P, line 9, word 1; and X, line 3, word 1 in Figure 5). Flat bottom minims identify the beginning of letters such as lowercase M and N (e.g. M, line 1, word 2; and N, line 7, word 1 in Figure 5) with the bottom of the last minim ending in a upward stroke. (“Remains of a Medieval Italian Antiphonal,” 2003, para. 4). Overlapping bowls called “biting” is a feature of rotunda. This is illustrated when two letters run into one another as in the combination of lowercase PO, BO, BE, DE, and DO (e.g. DE, line 9, word 1; and DO, line 3, word 2 in Figure 5). In addition, when the long form of lowercase S is followed by another S of the same fashion or a lowercase T, the first joins smoothly with the later (e.g. S, line 9, word 2; and S, line line 8, word 3 in Figure 5).
Figure 5
Also appearing is the abbreviation of the word “and” whose form is that of a backwards seven (line 10, word three in Figure 5) and the lowercase form of the letter Z (line 9, word 2) which looks like a backwards three and ascends below the base line.
Vellum and parchment differ greatly from that of paper as a writing support in that they contain two very different sides; the grain side and the flesh side. The grain side where the animal’s hair once grew can be darker, or golden in color, especially in parchment derived from sheep. The grain side also tends to curl in on itself. This can be very pronounced in less refined manuscripts. The flesh side on the other hand is whiter and smoother than the grain side, and tends to be convex (De Hamel, 1992, p. 16). The writing support of the manuscript form SFPL has none of these characteristics reinforcing that paper was used as the writing support.
The manufacturing of paper was a Chinese invention, and was introduced into Muslim Spain around the latter part of the eleventh century. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, paper was used in Italy and the Mediterranean as a writing material for ephemera such as sales receipts (Brown, 1994, p. 93). Items that were given great importance and weight by society were written on vellum and parchment due to their durability. Paper was seen as a temporary and fragile writing support, and was thus reserved for use in day to day transactions that were not seen to have enduring value to society. By the thirteenth century, northern Italy had become a manufacturing center for paper where it was exported throughout Europe (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Paper,” para. 1).
At this time, paper was used for text books and small prayers books for clerics. By the fifteenth century, paper had become a very popular support for writing. The invention of printing at the latter half of the fourteenth century revolutionized book productions and secured the reigning position of paper as the mainstay of writing supports over that of parchment and velum, due to its relative inexpensive nature compared to that of animal skins (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Paper,” para. 2).
Traditionally paper was made from cotton and linen rags, boiled to remove dirt and residues and then alternatively soaked and beaten until pulverized into a soupy pulp. The thin layer of pulp was then scooped onto wire screen and pressed to remove excess water, after which the pages were emptied onto a sheet of felt while another was placed atop and pressed until the paper sheets were wrung free of most of their surplus moisture. The damp sheets of paper were then taken and hung to dry. Finished paper sheets bore what is know as a watermark. The “mark” was left on the paper by the wire screen on which the pulp was sieved. This mark can be used in identifying particular paper manufactures (Brown, 1994, p. 94; “Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Paper,” para. 3). The paper from the SFPL manuscript contains a regular ribbed watermark in addition to sparsely interwoven colored fibers (Figure 6).
Figure 6
By examining the books current structure, details about its creation can be determined. Already we know that the codex was written in Italy through examining the script. However, additional information can be isolated further through examining the quires, ink, decoration and binding. These elements can further narrow the date of creation, and whether or not the codex is in its original binding and complete.
Quires
The layout of the manuscript contains seven quires, each containing five folios (ten pages) to produce a total of seventy pages (Figure 7). Three blank endpapers or flyleaves appear at both the beginning and end of the book, and act as pastedowns. Before the use of paper was introduced to Europe, manuscripts typically contained no more than four quires. This was due to the relative thickness and weight of parchment (Derolez, 2003, p. 32). Books made of parchment or vellum having more than four quires quickly became unwieldy.
Figure 7
Ruling was an important aspect of the page. Unlike today where it is considered unseemly to write a personal letter on lined paper, in the Middle Ages, the more elaborate the book, the more splendid the ruling (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Ruling,” para. 1). The manuscript from the SFPL contains full ruling which consists of a series of horizontal lines for each line of text, and two vertical lines that reach from the top of the page to the bottom. The ruling is modest and utilitarian, and was most likely made by either lead or metal point since both result in the leaving behind of a trace element on the page. Hard point on the other hand, would leave an indentation in the writing support itself (Derolez, 2003, p. 37; “Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Ruling,” para. 1). The SFPL manuscript’s ruling has a grayish coloring which indicates a lead or silver alloyed was used in creating the ruling.
The ink used to pen the manuscript in is most likely a metal gall ink. Carbon inks were used in medieval Europe, but their employment began to fail after the twelfth century and was replaced by gall inks. Clues extrapolated from the manuscript point to a creation later than the twelfth century; the use of rotunda took place between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries; paper production in Italy didn’t take off until the thirteenth century; and the number of bifolium contained in the manuscript speaks to a production later than the twelfth century. It would be hard to imagine that this manuscript’s creation is an exception which predates the common use of these materials and techniques.
The early medieval Europe saw an array of recipes for ink. The most popular method was to become known as metal gall ink. This recipe used varying amounts of ferrous sulfate or iron vitriol and oak galls combined with vinegar, water or wine. The black color of metal gall ink is derived from a chemical reaction between the metal and tannic acid (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Ink,” para. 3). However after several centuries some ink takes on a brownish hue. This is dependent on the storage of the manuscript over the years (Tillotson, 2005, “Inks and Colourings,” para. 4). Much of the ink in the manuscript has become faded to a brown color while others hold onto a deep black. Examples can be observed in Figures 3 and 4.
Pigmented inks, such as the red inks used in rubrics, were created by grinding colored minerals such as cinnabar or mercuric sulfide, both found in parts of Spain. Sometimes the more exotic brazilwood, imported from Asia, was used to create red ink. Blue, the second most common pigment found in medieval manuscripts after red, was commonly derived from the stone, azurite, found throughout Europe. Blue ink was often used for lettering, decorative pen work and miniatures. However, the prized blue came from lapis lazuli, which was imported from the region of Afghanistan. Blue paint was highly valuable and was commonly scraped from old manuscripts and art pieces to be reused. In the creation of these colored inks, powered pigments were then added to a binding agent like egg whites and gum of arabic, which is used as a thickener, or in the case of brazilwood, shavings were infused in vinegar which was later thickened with gum arabic (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Pigments,” para. 1; Tillotson, 2005, “Inks and Colourings 2,” para. 4).
Red ink was used as a means of bringing attention to particular aspects of the text such as in titles, chapter headings, or instructions (Brown, 1994, p. 111).In the SFPL codex rubrics describe chapter and prayer headings, instructions the priest was to carry out, such as kneeling or standing, or when a pray was to be read aloud or silently. The Office of the Dead was not intended to be recited from memory, as it is believed that the act of recitation would take away from the prayers’ focus, and as such the rubric instruction were an important element (“Office of the Dead,” para. 8). The fact that the manuscript was to be read from gives some insight into its small size and lack of boards. These two design characteristics make the codex lightweight and easy to carry and read from while standing without a podium or alter, perhaps even following a funeral procession.
Figure 9
Figure 8
In addition to rubrics, Pigmented inks were also employed to decorate capitols. The SFPL codex contains three types of letter embellishment: large gilded capitols and medium and “regular” sized capitols, both gilded and in blue ink. A fourth type of capitol is present in the text as well; “regular” sized capitols in black ink immediately follow medium and large gilded and blue inked capitols. Examples of letter sizing can bee seen in Figures 8 and 9.
Due to the troublesome nature of recovering a satisfactory translation of the text, it is difficult to know for sure the exact rhyme or reason in the use of decorated capitols. Large gilded capitols may signify the start of a new book in the Office of the Dead, such as First Vespers to Mass. This would indicate the use of an incipit; however the text appears to devoid of an explicit. Medium gilded and blue pigmented capitols may signify a change of prayer verse, while regular sized capitols appearing in both blue and gold may simply signify the beginning of a new sentence. The alternation between lettering in gold and that of ink my indicated nothing more than a cost saving device; it would be a lot more expensive to gild every capitol so instead the illuminator gilded every other one. As with the alternation of gilded and inked letters, the color of pen work also alternates with regard to larger and medium capitols. If a capitol appears with blue ornamentation, then the next capitol of the same size will be embellished with red ink, and so on.
As with the regularity of the script, the same is clear with regard to the text’s decoration and rubrication. There is a consistency of the manuscript’s decorative elements which leads one to believe that the same illuminator is responsible for the entirety of the pen work found throughout the codex. The rubrics also carry a uniformity that speaks to one individual; however the style is as such, that it appears that the rubricator and scribe are not one in the same.
Golden illuminations found in the manuscript are in the form of gilded letters. These golden letters are further embellished by blue and red pen work, each taking their place in an alternating rotation. Exterior embellishment is also present on the codex; the edges of the pages have been detailed in gold, although most of this decorative element has succumbed to the ages and only a faint hint remains.
Unlike ink details such as the spidery pen work found in the manuscript, gold detailing was not commonly applied as a liquid pigment until the second half of the fifteenth century. Gold leaf was much more common after 1200 and gave illuminations a royal feel (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Gilding,” para. 1). Gesso, water-base paint made of plaster, chalk, or gypsum bound together with glue or honey, was applied to the page by the illuminator, via the instructions left by the scribe. This was done to raise the surface of the page allowing for better application of the gold leaf and was achieved with either a pen or brush (Brown, 1991, p. 58; Tillotson, 2005, “Inks and Colourings 2,” para. 6). It is believed that the illuminator, unlike the scribe, worked at a flat desk rather than at a slanted surface to facilitate the application of gesso, which needed to be kept level as it was worked (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Gilding,” para. 3). After the gesso was dried, it was smoothed and rounded. The gold leaf was then placed upon the raised surface with the assistance of a thin, flat brush known as a guilder’s tip. When the leaf was in position, it was covered with a silk cloth and pressed firmly onto the gesso. This took a great amount of skill and craftsmanship. The gold leaf was when burnished with something smooth and hard, most likely a river stone, after which the area was trimmed and cleaned of excess leaf with a knife or brush. The result was a raised shaped gold design (Brown, 1994, p. 59; Tillotson, 2005, “Inks and Colourings 2,” para. 6; “Medieval Manuscript Manual,” 3). The three dimensional effect can bee seen in Figure 4 with the gilded capitol D.
The final step in the production of a manuscript is the binding of the quires or gatherings into a codex. In the late Middle Ages, this was usually done by either a stationary or book seller; positions which had developed as a result of the growth of universities in the twelfth century. As literacy rates grew, so did the demand for books which led to the decentralization of the manuscript production, which in turn led to specialization. In the early Middle Ages, book production was largely a monastic endeavor, and as a result, most works were of a religious nature, although some monasteries did produce copies of secular works. The job of binding would have been done by whichever monk possessed the skills necessary (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Bookbinding,” para. 1).
Throughout most of the Middle Ages, books were sewn onto leather bands or cords which ran perpendicular to the spine. The stitching of each quire would go through the center fold and then around the band, then back through the center fold and out and around the next band, over and over again, attaching each quire in the same fashion until all were stitched together (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Bookbinding,” para. 2).
At this point in the binding process, a cover was added to the manuscript. Boards made of various woods were used as covers; however, in the case of paper manuscripts, boards made of leather were commonly employed, known as limp bindings (Brown, 1994, p. 22; “Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Bookbinding,” para. 3). Pasteboard, a type of cardboard-like material formed by layering and gluing together waste paper or parchment gathered from previous manuscripts, was used infrequently throughout the Middle Ages. By the late fourteenth century, the use of pasteboards became more popular and can be found in many paper manuscripts from southern Europe in Spain and over into northern Italy in Bologna and Milan (“Medieval Manuscript Manual,” “Bookbinding,” para. 4; “Tillotson,” 2005, “The Codex,” para. 3). Inside the cover, pastedowns were used to hold secure the leather edges of the cover and to conceal the mechanics of the binding. These were usually made of surplus paper or parchment, sometimes scavenged from older manuscripts (Brown, 1994, p. 96). In the case of SFPL manuscript, flyleaves serve as pastedowns.
Figure 10
During the writing process, scribes would write notes on the quires as an organizational tool for the binder. Notes were used in most manuscripts from the thirteenth century on to ensure that the book would be assembled correctly by the binder (Brown, 1994, 105; Derolez, 2003, p. 34; Tillotson, 2005, “The Codex,” para. 8). Catchwords, a type of note frequently used by Italian scribes, were placed in the center margins on the last page of a quire. Catchwords are supposed to correspond to the first word of the following quire. Paying attention to catchwords can aid in identifying the completeness of a codex (Tillotson, 2005, “The Codex,” para. 8). An example of a catchword from the SFPL manuscript in Figure 10 does not correspond to the first word in the following quire. The discrepancy means that the codex has been rebound at least once since its creation, and that it is incomplete (Derolez, 2003, p. 34; Tillotson, 2005, “The Codex,” para. 8).
Medieval Italy from 1250 – 1350
It is clear from the information provided by the manuscript that it is Italian in origin and dates from the mid to late thirteenth century to the mid fourteenth century. In order to place this manuscript into its historical construct, it is necessary to briefly explore medieval Italy.
Life in medieval Italy was violent and dangerous. An era clouded in mysticism and superstitious thought which superseded rational thinking. Plagues, famine and corruption ravished the population. The Catholic Church was the pinnacle of moral judgment, creating laws that dealt with acts considered to be biblically immoral (Lansing, 1997, p. 4).
Most people made their homes in villages, and rarely traveled outside its zone of safety (“Medieval-Life.net,” “Village Life,” para. 2). By 1200, cities around the Mediterranean to northeastern Europe were thriving (“Medieval-Life.net,” “City Life,” para. 1). Between the mid twelfth and thirteenth centuries, town and country relations transformed northern and central Italian communes. The move from villages which were “subordinate to the hinterland” toward falling under the “economic and jurisdictional authority” of the “commercial bourgeoisie” meant that peasantry lost much of their financial and legal freedoms found under a feudal system (Epstein, 1993, p. 453). Urban centers exploited rural townships through unequal taxation, regulatory limitations against commerce in competition with the urban center, and increasing economic and judicial control by urban landlords over their rural tenants (Epstein, 1993, p. 453).
Italy’s population had become somewhat stable until the middle of the fourteenth century when the country was hit by several disasters. In 1348, the Black Death ravished Italy reducing the population by 70 percent in some areas. By 1400, rural villages had continued to suffer population loss. Some attributed this to plagues, wars, and taxes (Herlihy, 1972, p. 4).
The thirteenth century Italian mentality understood theological morality to be directly linked to violence and gender. In creating municipal rulings regarding public safety, lawmakers, in addressing violent acts displayed by noble factions against one another, looked towards the length of womens’ hemlines. According to Lansing (1997), the belief held “a root cause of the lack of order was concupiscence, sensual appetites resistance to rational control” (p. 33). That is to say, violence was sexually motivated even if the violent act had no relation in its expression to a sexual act. Women in this sense had to be controlled through their outward appearance in order to keep the men folk calm and orderly.
Much of the violence dolled out by noble families was in the form of vendettas. Harm done against one member of a family was considered to have harmed the whole. No laws were arranged to cease vendettas, only to curb and discourage acts of retribution and revenge. The mingling of moral theological justice was encouraged and over seen by the clergy, who in many cases assisted in writing laws (Dean, 1997, p. 3).
In a tumultuous era of plagues and wars, the reading of Office of the Dead served as a source of solace to those who had lost loved ones by reducing the time a soul was sentenced to purgatory. Although the codex is incomplete, it remains an excellent example of the rotunda script with beautifully preserved pages, and glided lettering. For all of the breath taking illuminated manuscripts preserved today, this small prayer book says more about everyday like in medieval Italy than most. Here we see a simple manuscript with utilitarian ruling and uncomplicated decoration which was used to ease suffering of the living by easing the suffering of the dead. In an era overwhelmed by death, this little book’s importance can not be overlooked or underestimated.
References and Works Consulted
Black Letter. (2010). Retrieved February 26, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_letter
Brown, M. P. (1994). Understanding illuminated manuscripts: a guide to technical terms. Los Angeles, California: Getty Publications.
Brown, M. P. (1990). A guide to western historical scripts from antiquity to 1600. England: BAS Printers Limited.
Carolingian minuscule. (2010). Retrieved February 26, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule
Dean, T. (1997). Marriage and mutilation: vendetta in late medieval Italy. Past & Present, 157, p. 3-36. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/651079
De Hamel, C. (1992). Scribes and illuminators: medieval craftsman. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Retrieved March 13, 2010 from http://books.google.com/books?id=9X1Vc393iPAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Derolez, A. (2003). The Palaeography of Gothic manuscript books: from the twelfth to the early sixteenth century. New York: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved February 22, 2010 from http://books.google.com/books?id=t_KoaIkzUqEC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=gothic+manuscript+binding&source=bl&ots=zEZelOTGrC&sig=LN52kS4Q_zI2oGxaUUV-kxTarxc&hl=en&ei=nCmHS7ScMoaSsgOhsKHhBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%20%20Leuze.&f=false
Epstein S. R. (1993). Town and country: economy and institutions in late medieval Italy. The Economic History Review, New Series, 46(3), 453-477.
Gothic Rotunda. (2009). Retrieved February 26, 2010 from http://ib.frath.net/w/Gothic_Rotunda
Herlihy, D. (1972). Mapping households in medieval Italy. The Catholic Historical Review, 58(1), 1-24. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25019007
Lansing, C. (2007). Gender and civic authority: sexual control in a medieval Italian town. Journal of Social History, 31(1), p. 33-59. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3789856
Medieval-Life.net. (2000). Retrieved March 2, 2010, from http://www.medieval-life.net
Medieval Manuscript Manual. Retrieved March 11, 2010 fromhttp://web.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/home.html
Office of the Dead. Retrieved February 28, 2010, from http://www.breviary.net/allsoulsguild/office/office.htm
Office of the Dead. (2009). Retrieved March 17, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Dead
Remains of a Medieval Italian Antiphonal. (2003). Retrieved March 8, 2010, from http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/University_Library/libs/hay/focus/antiphonals/script.html
Tillotson, D. (2005). Medieval Writing. Retrieved February 26, 2010, from http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/scripts/examples/rotunda2.htm
Ullman , B. L. (1974). The origin and development of humanistic script. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=NE7hMosYD_YC&printsec=frontcover&num=13#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Vespers of the Dead. Office of the Dead: Evening Prayer. (2007). Retrieved February 28, 2010, from http://haligweorc.files.wordpress.com/2007/03/vespers-of-the-dead.pdf
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